Savanna
The savanna is a grassland ecosystem characterized wildly spaced
trees with an open canopy covering approximately 20% or the earth surface area.
The open canopy allows plenty light to reach the ground to support the lower
vegetation strata consisting primarily of grasses. Savannas are also
characterized by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall
confined to one season. The presence of large grazing animals and high
diversity of bird life is characteristic to this biome. This biome produces
high biomass to sustain large numbers of grazing animals. High diversity of pod
and fruit producing trees. The Bushmen lived in the savanna and they had
extensive knowledge of the land. The where peaceful hunters and gatherers and
had great respect for the land. They used a variety of animal and plant species
for medicinal and recreational uses.
mammals
Kudu (tragelaphus strepsiceros)
Diagnostic characteristics: The kudu has a large slender body with brown/bluish-grey to reddish-brown color. Vertical white stripes run across the body. The head is darker in color compared to the rest of the body with a white stripe between the eyes. Only males grow horns. The horns are large and rotate in a spiral motion. Males are normally larger then females, and vocalize more using large grunt noises. There is white fur on the backside of the short tail, used as a warning signal to others when predators are near.
Biological information: The kudu is not fast enough to escape their predators on open field, so they rely on leaping over shrubs and running into hillsides. They eat leaves, grass, shoots and occasionally tubers, roots and fruit. The main predators for the kudu are generally lion, leopard and hunting dogs.
Importance: The kudu was hunted for food by Bushmen. The skin (with ostrich egg shell) was used to treat leg pain by rubbing this mixture into small medicinal incisions. Kudu skin as well as eland skin is common ingredients in creating “health strategies”, ensuring strong children and better hunters. The skins were used as treads to make necklaces, for good well being.
Diagnostic characteristics: The kudu has a large slender body with brown/bluish-grey to reddish-brown color. Vertical white stripes run across the body. The head is darker in color compared to the rest of the body with a white stripe between the eyes. Only males grow horns. The horns are large and rotate in a spiral motion. Males are normally larger then females, and vocalize more using large grunt noises. There is white fur on the backside of the short tail, used as a warning signal to others when predators are near.
Biological information: The kudu is not fast enough to escape their predators on open field, so they rely on leaping over shrubs and running into hillsides. They eat leaves, grass, shoots and occasionally tubers, roots and fruit. The main predators for the kudu are generally lion, leopard and hunting dogs.
Importance: The kudu was hunted for food by Bushmen. The skin (with ostrich egg shell) was used to treat leg pain by rubbing this mixture into small medicinal incisions. Kudu skin as well as eland skin is common ingredients in creating “health strategies”, ensuring strong children and better hunters. The skins were used as treads to make necklaces, for good well being.
Aardvark (orycteropus afer)
Diagnostic characteristics: The name aardvark meaning earth pig came from the combination of the pig like appearance and the digging behavior. They have an elongated head with large ears.Simple dentition, only having grinding teeth on each side of the jaw. An elongated slender tong with well developed salivary glands to lick up their prey. The fore feet are shorter than the hind legs, and have well developed claws for digging large burrows and destroying ant’s nests.
Biological information: They are nocturnal solitary animals. They only group during the mating season. There died is dominated by termites and ants, but also consume beetle larvae and wild cucumber. They are preyed upon by lions and hyenas and hunted for bush meat and recreation.
Importance: Various body parts are used in traditional medicines by Bushmen. These include good luck charms and whys to prevent illness.
Diagnostic characteristics: The name aardvark meaning earth pig came from the combination of the pig like appearance and the digging behavior. They have an elongated head with large ears.Simple dentition, only having grinding teeth on each side of the jaw. An elongated slender tong with well developed salivary glands to lick up their prey. The fore feet are shorter than the hind legs, and have well developed claws for digging large burrows and destroying ant’s nests.
Biological information: They are nocturnal solitary animals. They only group during the mating season. There died is dominated by termites and ants, but also consume beetle larvae and wild cucumber. They are preyed upon by lions and hyenas and hunted for bush meat and recreation.
Importance: Various body parts are used in traditional medicines by Bushmen. These include good luck charms and whys to prevent illness.
Lion (panther leo)
Diagnostic characteristics: The lion is one of the largest cats in the genus Panthera. The skull is large and has a flattened and slightly depressed frontal region. Males grow large manes that very in color and size. The size and color of the mane is a reflection of the genetic fitness of than individual, and females will choose the larges and darkest mane.
Biological information: The lion’s displays pack mentality, and only one male is allowed mating rights in a pride. They show obvious sexual dimorphism, that is when the sexes are distinctively different. Males are very territorial and will fight to keep their territory. The hunt antelope and larger mammals and will pick off the weakest link.
Importance: The Bushmen live along with these large predatory cats, and gained much respect for this cat. The Khoisan sang songs about lions. The lion’s fat was used as a medicine for sores and gout. The Bushmen would watch the lions hunt and waited in till the right moment to chase them from the kill and to scavenge for themselves. Chasing away lions was a job for the brave, and came with much respect.
Diagnostic characteristics: The lion is one of the largest cats in the genus Panthera. The skull is large and has a flattened and slightly depressed frontal region. Males grow large manes that very in color and size. The size and color of the mane is a reflection of the genetic fitness of than individual, and females will choose the larges and darkest mane.
Biological information: The lion’s displays pack mentality, and only one male is allowed mating rights in a pride. They show obvious sexual dimorphism, that is when the sexes are distinctively different. Males are very territorial and will fight to keep their territory. The hunt antelope and larger mammals and will pick off the weakest link.
Importance: The Bushmen live along with these large predatory cats, and gained much respect for this cat. The Khoisan sang songs about lions. The lion’s fat was used as a medicine for sores and gout. The Bushmen would watch the lions hunt and waited in till the right moment to chase them from the kill and to scavenge for themselves. Chasing away lions was a job for the brave, and came with much respect.
birds
Red-billed Hornbill (tockus erythrorhynchus)
Diagnostic characteristics: The red-billed hornbill as the name implies has a long curved red bill, other subspecies have different colored bills. They have a white underside with blotches of gray/black dots. On top they are darker, having gray/black feathers as well as a long black tail. The male and female looks similar but the female bill is smaller. To cope with that large beak the first two neck vertebrates are fused. The long curved bill is nicely adapted to dig for food.
Biological information: The female nests in the hollow of trees where she lays 3-6 eggs. The male barricades the hole with mud, droppings and other food pulp, only leaving a small opening through which he can feed the female and the growing chicks. When the area within the tree gets to small the mother breaks out (can take up to 5hours) and then rebuilds the wall and helps with the feeding of the chicks. Hornbills are omnivores and eat a variety of food such as insects, seeds and fruits, they are very opportunistic and like to stay within there territory.
Importance: The hornbills have a very smart why of concealing and raising their young, but the Bushmen knew about their secret. The Bushmen would take out the female hornbill along with the young to eat.
Diagnostic characteristics: The red-billed hornbill as the name implies has a long curved red bill, other subspecies have different colored bills. They have a white underside with blotches of gray/black dots. On top they are darker, having gray/black feathers as well as a long black tail. The male and female looks similar but the female bill is smaller. To cope with that large beak the first two neck vertebrates are fused. The long curved bill is nicely adapted to dig for food.
Biological information: The female nests in the hollow of trees where she lays 3-6 eggs. The male barricades the hole with mud, droppings and other food pulp, only leaving a small opening through which he can feed the female and the growing chicks. When the area within the tree gets to small the mother breaks out (can take up to 5hours) and then rebuilds the wall and helps with the feeding of the chicks. Hornbills are omnivores and eat a variety of food such as insects, seeds and fruits, they are very opportunistic and like to stay within there territory.
Importance: The hornbills have a very smart why of concealing and raising their young, but the Bushmen knew about their secret. The Bushmen would take out the female hornbill along with the young to eat.
Lappet faced vulture (aegypius tracheliotus)
Diagnostic characteristics: The lapped faced vulture is considered to have the largest and longest wings of all vultures, with an average wingspan of 2.7m. They are not very large animals only reaching an average height between 105cm. The small body and large wing span allows the vulture to ride thermals to reach a superior vantage point from where they can spot possible food sources. Viewed from above the lappet faced vultures have blackish brown color feathers from the neck to the tail feathers. Viewed from beneath the feathers color varies a bit, the wing have black brown feathers with white fluffy feathers near the wing bone, the chest are predominantly covered in white fluffy feathers with some black feathers in between. The white fluffy feathers also occur on the legs. There are no feathers on the face, and the skin is wrinkled and red to bluish in color. They have large black eyes and a large downwards curved black beak.
Biological information: These birds are normally solitary birds and don’t form large breeding colonies. A single tree or area will only be occupied by one or two mating pairs. They construct very large nest in the breeding season that are made out of sticks that are neatly arranged. They line the nest with softer material like green leaves and animal hair or skin. The female vulture will produce a clutch size of 2 eggs that is incubated by both parents during the breeding season. These birds are carnivores and scavenge almost all of their food. They are normally the first group of vultures to arrive at a freshly killed animal, where they will sit and wait until the other larger predators have had their share. They will scavenge on skin, tendons and other coarse tissue undesirable to others. They use their powerful beak to tare through thick skin and can be very aggressive towards their own species during feeding. The bald head is beneficial because feathers would get covered in blood when the vulture is feeding.
Importance: The vulture is of great significance to the Bushmen. They tell stories of how awful it should be dying away form ones family and being eaten by vultures. They also construct elaborate songs and dances about the vultures and how threatening they can be, but these songs end by praising the bird.
Diagnostic characteristics: The lapped faced vulture is considered to have the largest and longest wings of all vultures, with an average wingspan of 2.7m. They are not very large animals only reaching an average height between 105cm. The small body and large wing span allows the vulture to ride thermals to reach a superior vantage point from where they can spot possible food sources. Viewed from above the lappet faced vultures have blackish brown color feathers from the neck to the tail feathers. Viewed from beneath the feathers color varies a bit, the wing have black brown feathers with white fluffy feathers near the wing bone, the chest are predominantly covered in white fluffy feathers with some black feathers in between. The white fluffy feathers also occur on the legs. There are no feathers on the face, and the skin is wrinkled and red to bluish in color. They have large black eyes and a large downwards curved black beak.
Biological information: These birds are normally solitary birds and don’t form large breeding colonies. A single tree or area will only be occupied by one or two mating pairs. They construct very large nest in the breeding season that are made out of sticks that are neatly arranged. They line the nest with softer material like green leaves and animal hair or skin. The female vulture will produce a clutch size of 2 eggs that is incubated by both parents during the breeding season. These birds are carnivores and scavenge almost all of their food. They are normally the first group of vultures to arrive at a freshly killed animal, where they will sit and wait until the other larger predators have had their share. They will scavenge on skin, tendons and other coarse tissue undesirable to others. They use their powerful beak to tare through thick skin and can be very aggressive towards their own species during feeding. The bald head is beneficial because feathers would get covered in blood when the vulture is feeding.
Importance: The vulture is of great significance to the Bushmen. They tell stories of how awful it should be dying away form ones family and being eaten by vultures. They also construct elaborate songs and dances about the vultures and how threatening they can be, but these songs end by praising the bird.
Greater Honeyguide (Indicator indicator)
Diagnostic characters: The greater honeyguide is a small bird only reaching an average height of 20cm and average weight of 50g. Males differ in color form the females. Viewed form the top, males has black feathers with whit tints on the edge of the feathers from the head to the tail feather. Males have a distinctive yellow patch of feathers on each side next to the wings. Viewed from below the feathers are white/gray of color. The head and throat is dark black with a red beak and distinctive white/gray circular patches on both sides of the head. Females look similar to the males but lack the distinctive yellow patches beside the wings as well as the white/gray patches on the head and have brown/gray beak and do not have a black throat.
Biological information:As the name implies, this species is known to guide animals as well as people to bee colonies. They use wavering and special vocals to get the attention of people to guide them to the bee colonies. They feed primarily on bee eggs, larvae and pupae as well as the wax. They are capable of digesting wax. These honeyguides also catch and eat flying insects (swarming termites). These birds do not build their own nests, but instead they will lay there eggs in other suitable nests from other birds species. This makes them a special type of parasite (brood parasite). The eggs normally hatch quick and the small blind and featherless chick uses a hook on the top of the beak to kill thehosts young.
Importance: The Bushmen would sit and wait for the honeyguide to come and call them. They knew that this bird would take them to honey that they loved so much. They believed that the honeyguide should be rewarded for its trouble otherwise the honeyguide would lead them to lions or other predators instead of the honey, so they always remembered to reward the bird with some of the bounty. The honeyguide and the Bushmen had a close bond.
Diagnostic characters: The greater honeyguide is a small bird only reaching an average height of 20cm and average weight of 50g. Males differ in color form the females. Viewed form the top, males has black feathers with whit tints on the edge of the feathers from the head to the tail feather. Males have a distinctive yellow patch of feathers on each side next to the wings. Viewed from below the feathers are white/gray of color. The head and throat is dark black with a red beak and distinctive white/gray circular patches on both sides of the head. Females look similar to the males but lack the distinctive yellow patches beside the wings as well as the white/gray patches on the head and have brown/gray beak and do not have a black throat.
Biological information:As the name implies, this species is known to guide animals as well as people to bee colonies. They use wavering and special vocals to get the attention of people to guide them to the bee colonies. They feed primarily on bee eggs, larvae and pupae as well as the wax. They are capable of digesting wax. These honeyguides also catch and eat flying insects (swarming termites). These birds do not build their own nests, but instead they will lay there eggs in other suitable nests from other birds species. This makes them a special type of parasite (brood parasite). The eggs normally hatch quick and the small blind and featherless chick uses a hook on the top of the beak to kill thehosts young.
Importance: The Bushmen would sit and wait for the honeyguide to come and call them. They knew that this bird would take them to honey that they loved so much. They believed that the honeyguide should be rewarded for its trouble otherwise the honeyguide would lead them to lions or other predators instead of the honey, so they always remembered to reward the bird with some of the bounty. The honeyguide and the Bushmen had a close bond.
Trees/shrubs
Camel thorn (Acacia erioloba)
Diagnostic characteristics:A. erioloba is a large multi stemmed tree reaching a average height of 16m. A. erioloba also occurs as a spiny shrub reaching a height of 2m. The bark is light brown with a reddish tint and longitudinal curved groves along the trunk, where long straight white spines grow out. They produce lots of small round clusters of sweetly scented flowers during late winter and through out summer. They have compound leaves that are comprised of lots of small leaflets oppositely arranged ending with a terminal leaflet. A. erioloba produces large flattend bean shaped pods filled with seeds known as legume fruits.
Biological information:These pods are grazed upon by wild game and the thick hairy seeds get transported via the animal over large distances, the seed can withstand the chewing motion of the herbivores and survive the digestive system. The seeds get expelled via droppings, and the dropping provides nutrients needed for development.
Importance: This tree was very important for the Bushmen, they used different parts of the tree for different uses. The pods and seeds where used to create beautiful crafts for the women or they where burned and then crushed to make a special medicinal remedy (with other substances)to be applied to incisions to relieve pain and promote healing. The pods where also used to feed their livestock. The wood for the tree was used for constructing huts and for fuel. The seeds where roasted then crushed to brew coffee, or to mix with their porridge. Some also used the gum of the tree for medicinal uses.
Diagnostic characteristics:A. erioloba is a large multi stemmed tree reaching a average height of 16m. A. erioloba also occurs as a spiny shrub reaching a height of 2m. The bark is light brown with a reddish tint and longitudinal curved groves along the trunk, where long straight white spines grow out. They produce lots of small round clusters of sweetly scented flowers during late winter and through out summer. They have compound leaves that are comprised of lots of small leaflets oppositely arranged ending with a terminal leaflet. A. erioloba produces large flattend bean shaped pods filled with seeds known as legume fruits.
Biological information:These pods are grazed upon by wild game and the thick hairy seeds get transported via the animal over large distances, the seed can withstand the chewing motion of the herbivores and survive the digestive system. The seeds get expelled via droppings, and the dropping provides nutrients needed for development.
Importance: This tree was very important for the Bushmen, they used different parts of the tree for different uses. The pods and seeds where used to create beautiful crafts for the women or they where burned and then crushed to make a special medicinal remedy (with other substances)to be applied to incisions to relieve pain and promote healing. The pods where also used to feed their livestock. The wood for the tree was used for constructing huts and for fuel. The seeds where roasted then crushed to brew coffee, or to mix with their porridge. Some also used the gum of the tree for medicinal uses.
Gnoibos(Acacia mellifera)
Diagnostic characteristics:A. melliferais a short shrubby multiple stemmed tree reaching an average height of 9m. The bark of A. mellifera varies in color form light brown to dark brown with longitudinal cracks that are darker in color. The tree produces blackish hooked thorns between the internodes of the branches. Young leaves are green early in development and tern pale gray or bluish-green when older. A. mellifera produces lots of clustered sweetly scented round cream colored flowers that turn brown when older. These flowers are fluffy and are made out of lots of fine long treads (anthers).After pollination A. mellifera rapidly produces small thin pods that are straight and smooth in texture which houses the seeds. A. melliferahas a shallow and extensive root system.
Biological information:A. mellifera root system allows it to grow rapidly and and spread fast via fast production of seeds. This fast pace at which A. mellifera spreads can have great impacts on other vegetation (strong competition) and can create impenetrable thickets. The young succulent branches and pods are grazed upon by game and are very nutritious. Kudu, eland and giraffe are the normal grazers if this species.
Importance:This is another important acacia species used by the bushmen for varies uses. They used the wood for fuel and twigs where chewed to clean there teeth. The tree sap form A. mellifera was used along with other grubs to create a poisonous concoction that where used to poison their arrows when they hunted large game. The bark was boiled to extract medicinal properties that was used to treat stomach-aches. In modern times it is used to treat pneumonia, malaria and syphilis. Baskets where constructed form the roots that where used to collect food.
Diagnostic characteristics:A. melliferais a short shrubby multiple stemmed tree reaching an average height of 9m. The bark of A. mellifera varies in color form light brown to dark brown with longitudinal cracks that are darker in color. The tree produces blackish hooked thorns between the internodes of the branches. Young leaves are green early in development and tern pale gray or bluish-green when older. A. mellifera produces lots of clustered sweetly scented round cream colored flowers that turn brown when older. These flowers are fluffy and are made out of lots of fine long treads (anthers).After pollination A. mellifera rapidly produces small thin pods that are straight and smooth in texture which houses the seeds. A. melliferahas a shallow and extensive root system.
Biological information:A. mellifera root system allows it to grow rapidly and and spread fast via fast production of seeds. This fast pace at which A. mellifera spreads can have great impacts on other vegetation (strong competition) and can create impenetrable thickets. The young succulent branches and pods are grazed upon by game and are very nutritious. Kudu, eland and giraffe are the normal grazers if this species.
Importance:This is another important acacia species used by the bushmen for varies uses. They used the wood for fuel and twigs where chewed to clean there teeth. The tree sap form A. mellifera was used along with other grubs to create a poisonous concoction that where used to poison their arrows when they hunted large game. The bark was boiled to extract medicinal properties that was used to treat stomach-aches. In modern times it is used to treat pneumonia, malaria and syphilis. Baskets where constructed form the roots that where used to collect food.
Rosyntjiebos(Grewia flava)
Diagnostic characteristics:G. flava is a small dense multi-stemmed shrubby tree that is low growing and reaches an average height of 2m. It has distinctive stiff green hairy elongated leaves that grow upright and never droop downwards. G. flava has dark brown sometimes even grayish colored bark. G. flavaproduces sweetly scented beautiful star shaped flowers that change color form yellow to orange/brown as it gets older; they have 5 petals and sepals with numerous stamens and a single stigma that has 3 stigmatic branches. These flowers give rise to small reddish brown edible berry shaped fruit that is very sweet and has high sugar content.
Biological information:G. flavais a slow growing shrub growing in clusters, which has a high environmental tolerance. They will survive in very low and high temperatures and are frost and drought resistant. A variety of bird species will feed on the fruit when it come available from December to April. There is a close relationship between two butterfly species (White-cloaked Skipper Butterfly and the Spotted Velvet Skipper Butterfly) that uses G. flava as an host plant to lay their eggs on and act as a food source for the developing larvae. Bees will also come and visit G. flava to collect pollen.
Importance: The Bushmen used the different branches of G. flava to create their hunting equipment, they used the long thick and durable branches to make the bows while the straight thin branches where used to make the arrows. Some of the branches (long and straight) was used to make walking stick as well as traditional fighting sticks. Fibers from the bark were used to make rope. The seeds was partially burnt and then grounded to make a medicinal substance that was applied to medical incisions to promote healing and relive pain.
Diagnostic characteristics:G. flava is a small dense multi-stemmed shrubby tree that is low growing and reaches an average height of 2m. It has distinctive stiff green hairy elongated leaves that grow upright and never droop downwards. G. flava has dark brown sometimes even grayish colored bark. G. flavaproduces sweetly scented beautiful star shaped flowers that change color form yellow to orange/brown as it gets older; they have 5 petals and sepals with numerous stamens and a single stigma that has 3 stigmatic branches. These flowers give rise to small reddish brown edible berry shaped fruit that is very sweet and has high sugar content.
Biological information:G. flavais a slow growing shrub growing in clusters, which has a high environmental tolerance. They will survive in very low and high temperatures and are frost and drought resistant. A variety of bird species will feed on the fruit when it come available from December to April. There is a close relationship between two butterfly species (White-cloaked Skipper Butterfly and the Spotted Velvet Skipper Butterfly) that uses G. flava as an host plant to lay their eggs on and act as a food source for the developing larvae. Bees will also come and visit G. flava to collect pollen.
Importance: The Bushmen used the different branches of G. flava to create their hunting equipment, they used the long thick and durable branches to make the bows while the straight thin branches where used to make the arrows. Some of the branches (long and straight) was used to make walking stick as well as traditional fighting sticks. Fibers from the bark were used to make rope. The seeds was partially burnt and then grounded to make a medicinal substance that was applied to medical incisions to promote healing and relive pain.
herbs
Elandsboontjie (Elephantorrhiza elephantina)
Diagnostic characteristics: E. elephantine is a low goring shrub with a large woody base that forms a massive tuberous root that stores most of the nutrients and water the plant needs. From the underground root multiple unbranched herbaceous single stems grow up to 60cm in length, which comprises the canopy of the plant. Small leaves grow in opposite arrangement on the stems that are pale green in color. The bark on the woody base is dark brown to reddish in color. E. elephantine produces golden yellow to faded yellow/white flowers in large clusters close to each other, known as a receme inflorescence, which grows close to the ground form September to November. The fruits that form for the flower are reddish brown pods that are compressed, which houses ellipsoid brown seeds.
Biological information:E. elephantine has evolved over time to deal with frost and fire, this is accomplished by the massive underground tuberous root system from where the plant can resprout and continue growing. Fire and frost was important evolutionary driving forces. E. elephantineis frequently pollinated by the African honeybee, but other insects also visit E. elephantinebut do not aid in pollination such as beetles that eat the flowers. Nectar glands are present on the anthers that gets removed when bees pollinates the plant.
Importance:Traditionally the Bushmen used the rhizomes to dye animal skins and extracts of the underground parts was used to treat sunburn, but the roots can be used as a remedy for diarrhea, to stop bleeding and treating intestinal disorders. The leaves were used as medicines and the seeds were grinded and partially burned to be used as coffee. The Bushmen believed that when the root system was not covered after it was harvested, the person being treated will not get better.
Diagnostic characteristics: E. elephantine is a low goring shrub with a large woody base that forms a massive tuberous root that stores most of the nutrients and water the plant needs. From the underground root multiple unbranched herbaceous single stems grow up to 60cm in length, which comprises the canopy of the plant. Small leaves grow in opposite arrangement on the stems that are pale green in color. The bark on the woody base is dark brown to reddish in color. E. elephantine produces golden yellow to faded yellow/white flowers in large clusters close to each other, known as a receme inflorescence, which grows close to the ground form September to November. The fruits that form for the flower are reddish brown pods that are compressed, which houses ellipsoid brown seeds.
Biological information:E. elephantine has evolved over time to deal with frost and fire, this is accomplished by the massive underground tuberous root system from where the plant can resprout and continue growing. Fire and frost was important evolutionary driving forces. E. elephantineis frequently pollinated by the African honeybee, but other insects also visit E. elephantinebut do not aid in pollination such as beetles that eat the flowers. Nectar glands are present on the anthers that gets removed when bees pollinates the plant.
Importance:Traditionally the Bushmen used the rhizomes to dye animal skins and extracts of the underground parts was used to treat sunburn, but the roots can be used as a remedy for diarrhea, to stop bleeding and treating intestinal disorders. The leaves were used as medicines and the seeds were grinded and partially burned to be used as coffee. The Bushmen believed that when the root system was not covered after it was harvested, the person being treated will not get better.
Tandpynbossie (Berula erecta)
Diagnostic characteristics: B. erectais a short perennial plant reaching a height of 1m that forms extensive stolons above ground. The stem is erects and give rise to a unique flower inflorescence know as an umbel. The primary stem, which are hollow for maximum water transport, branches out and forms secondary stems that again branch out and on these stems the white flowers are grouped into small clusters. The flowers have 5 petals and the flowers are unisexual, but both sexes are on the same plant. The leaves that arise basally are similar to that of ferns. They are comprised of several leaflets and ends with a terminal leaflet(compound leaves) and are alternately arrange on the primary stem.
Biological information: B. erectais are pilinated are assisted by insects, mostly of the genus Lepidoptera. The plant is toxic and has the potency of killing brazing animals. This plant leaf stalk as a unique small when crushed that smells like carrots.
Importance: B. erectais was used by the bush people for a variety of medicinal uses. They would use parts of the whole plant to make a special infusion that was used to wash rashes and to treat swelling. They also externally applied the plant to the joint of people that was struggling with rheumatism. They also ate the rhizomes to help with toothache.
Diagnostic characteristics: B. erectais a short perennial plant reaching a height of 1m that forms extensive stolons above ground. The stem is erects and give rise to a unique flower inflorescence know as an umbel. The primary stem, which are hollow for maximum water transport, branches out and forms secondary stems that again branch out and on these stems the white flowers are grouped into small clusters. The flowers have 5 petals and the flowers are unisexual, but both sexes are on the same plant. The leaves that arise basally are similar to that of ferns. They are comprised of several leaflets and ends with a terminal leaflet(compound leaves) and are alternately arrange on the primary stem.
Biological information: B. erectais are pilinated are assisted by insects, mostly of the genus Lepidoptera. The plant is toxic and has the potency of killing brazing animals. This plant leaf stalk as a unique small when crushed that smells like carrots.
Importance: B. erectais was used by the bush people for a variety of medicinal uses. They would use parts of the whole plant to make a special infusion that was used to wash rashes and to treat swelling. They also externally applied the plant to the joint of people that was struggling with rheumatism. They also ate the rhizomes to help with toothache.
Dawidjiewortel (Cissampelos capensis)
Diagnostic characteristics: C. capensis is different to most plant, having separate male and female flowers. C. capensis is a dioecious perennial clamming shrublet. They have have large leaves in the shape of a heart and sometimes forms a ovate shape. The leaves are complete and alternatively arrange on petioles that are 3cm long and they lack hairs on the surface of the leave. Flowers are produce form February to May. Male flowers are very small are form a cymose inflorescence, they are green to faded yellow of color with 4 succulent petals that are velvety. Female flowers produce a small fleshy red berry like fruit. A distinctive character of C. capensis is the absence of calcium oxalate crystals in the leaf lamina.
Biological information: C. capensis is endemic to South Africa and occurs in winter rainfall areas. Some variation in the plant structure occurs geographically. More inland plants have xerophitic adaptations with smaller grayish colored leaves (glaucous), while along the coast they have larger leaves that are not as glaucous as the inland plants.
Importance: Bushmen had defferent medicinal uses for this plant. They would use a leave infusion to make a past to be used externally to tread sores and heal wounds like snake bites or the infusion would be injected to treat a upset stomach, diarrhea and bladder problems.. They would prepare the roots was also internally and externally. They would also use the rhizomes as a blood purifier, as well to treat fevers and to relive pain. In modern times it is also used for TB and diabetes.
Diagnostic characteristics: C. capensis is different to most plant, having separate male and female flowers. C. capensis is a dioecious perennial clamming shrublet. They have have large leaves in the shape of a heart and sometimes forms a ovate shape. The leaves are complete and alternatively arrange on petioles that are 3cm long and they lack hairs on the surface of the leave. Flowers are produce form February to May. Male flowers are very small are form a cymose inflorescence, they are green to faded yellow of color with 4 succulent petals that are velvety. Female flowers produce a small fleshy red berry like fruit. A distinctive character of C. capensis is the absence of calcium oxalate crystals in the leaf lamina.
Biological information: C. capensis is endemic to South Africa and occurs in winter rainfall areas. Some variation in the plant structure occurs geographically. More inland plants have xerophitic adaptations with smaller grayish colored leaves (glaucous), while along the coast they have larger leaves that are not as glaucous as the inland plants.
Importance: Bushmen had defferent medicinal uses for this plant. They would use a leave infusion to make a past to be used externally to tread sores and heal wounds like snake bites or the infusion would be injected to treat a upset stomach, diarrhea and bladder problems.. They would prepare the roots was also internally and externally. They would also use the rhizomes as a blood purifier, as well to treat fevers and to relive pain. In modern times it is also used for TB and diabetes.
invertebrates
Bushman arrow-poison beetle (Diamphidia Nigro-ornata)
Diagnostic characteristics: D. nigro-ornata is a small red/bruin colored beetle with distinctive small black dots along the side of the body as well on the head and upper thorax, the dots are also found on the legs and on the abaxial side of the body. They have 6 legs and 2 long antennae and 2 small eyes that they use to navigate their surroundings. The larvae are small white pupae with a distinctive black head region with black legs and under parts.
Biological information: D. nigro-ornata uses commiphora as a host plant to lay their eggs. The eggs are laid on the stems of these plants and are covered on fecal matter of the same species that hardens to help protect the eggs. When the larvae develops the fecal matter are still attached to the posterior of the larvae and only falls of when in the final instar stage of development. At this time they dig down to a depth of 1 m underground beneath the host plant where they will undergo a rapid transformation after lying dormant for several years. D. nigro-ornata larvae are the host of a different parasitic beetle (carabid lebistina) that lays their eggs on the back of the larvae and are incubated along with the larvae when they form a cocoon. The parasitic larvae then feed on the hosts tissue. D. nigro-ornata larvae are poisonous and have a haemolytic effect.
Importance: D. nigro-ornata larvae contain a protein toxin that is used by the Bushmen to coat there arrow heads when they go hunting. The Bushmen dig under the host plant and break open the cocoons and squeezes the bodily fluids onto the shaft of the arrows, normally up to 10 pupae are used to coat a single arrow.
Diagnostic characteristics: D. nigro-ornata is a small red/bruin colored beetle with distinctive small black dots along the side of the body as well on the head and upper thorax, the dots are also found on the legs and on the abaxial side of the body. They have 6 legs and 2 long antennae and 2 small eyes that they use to navigate their surroundings. The larvae are small white pupae with a distinctive black head region with black legs and under parts.
Biological information: D. nigro-ornata uses commiphora as a host plant to lay their eggs. The eggs are laid on the stems of these plants and are covered on fecal matter of the same species that hardens to help protect the eggs. When the larvae develops the fecal matter are still attached to the posterior of the larvae and only falls of when in the final instar stage of development. At this time they dig down to a depth of 1 m underground beneath the host plant where they will undergo a rapid transformation after lying dormant for several years. D. nigro-ornata larvae are the host of a different parasitic beetle (carabid lebistina) that lays their eggs on the back of the larvae and are incubated along with the larvae when they form a cocoon. The parasitic larvae then feed on the hosts tissue. D. nigro-ornata larvae are poisonous and have a haemolytic effect.
Importance: D. nigro-ornata larvae contain a protein toxin that is used by the Bushmen to coat there arrow heads when they go hunting. The Bushmen dig under the host plant and break open the cocoons and squeezes the bodily fluids onto the shaft of the arrows, normally up to 10 pupae are used to coat a single arrow.
Rhus flea beetles (blepharida)
Diagnostic characteristics: Blepharida is a small beetle reaching a length of 6mm, that has a yellowish head and a red abdomen with white vertical strips running down the body. The heads are flattened and ovate with two long antennae. The larvae are greenish with a black head region and they have distinctive longitudinal lightly colored stripes on the smooth moist skins.
Biological information: Blepharida produces long elongated pellets of excrement that houses up to 6 oblong eggs that are 1mm in length. The eggs are orange and covered on a thin membrane, which is found on the branches of the host plant as well as on the internodes.
Importance: Blepharida fed on poisonous plants which intern made them poisonous. The Bushmen used the poison to coat the arrows for hunting.
Diagnostic characteristics: Blepharida is a small beetle reaching a length of 6mm, that has a yellowish head and a red abdomen with white vertical strips running down the body. The heads are flattened and ovate with two long antennae. The larvae are greenish with a black head region and they have distinctive longitudinal lightly colored stripes on the smooth moist skins.
Biological information: Blepharida produces long elongated pellets of excrement that houses up to 6 oblong eggs that are 1mm in length. The eggs are orange and covered on a thin membrane, which is found on the branches of the host plant as well as on the internodes.
Importance: Blepharida fed on poisonous plants which intern made them poisonous. The Bushmen used the poison to coat the arrows for hunting.
African honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata)
Diagnostic characteristics: A. mellifera scutellata is a medium sized bee with a body that is covers in dull yellow hairs. The lower abdomen has horizontal black and yellow strips, black strips becoming thicker closer to the stinger. They have large compound eyes and long antae. When A. mellifera scutellata is compared to Apismellifera, you will notice a more defensive behavior around their nests
Biological information: A. mellifera scutellata is a aggressive bee that forms large colonies on tree hollows or rotten logs. They will chase away intruders in large number as far as 50 feet to protect their nests. A. mellifera scutellata is a important pollinator and feeds mostly on pollen and the nectar of those plants. The nectar is used to make honey that is the main source of carbohydrates, where as the pollen is the main source of protein. During cold winters the bees rely on swarming behavior inside the nest to regulate the temperature. The queen will mate with lots of drones that give rise to fertilized female worker bees, but when the egg is not fertilized it produces male drones. If the fertilized eggs are provided with sufficient nutrients (royal jelly) they will produce a queen. A queen can lay up to 1500 eggs a day.
Importance: Bees are very imported for the Bushmen, because they make honey. Honey is seen as a delicacy and is not always readily available. Honey was eaten on its own, or was fashioned into a “medicine tablet” along with other substances.
Diagnostic characteristics: A. mellifera scutellata is a medium sized bee with a body that is covers in dull yellow hairs. The lower abdomen has horizontal black and yellow strips, black strips becoming thicker closer to the stinger. They have large compound eyes and long antae. When A. mellifera scutellata is compared to Apismellifera, you will notice a more defensive behavior around their nests
Biological information: A. mellifera scutellata is a aggressive bee that forms large colonies on tree hollows or rotten logs. They will chase away intruders in large number as far as 50 feet to protect their nests. A. mellifera scutellata is a important pollinator and feeds mostly on pollen and the nectar of those plants. The nectar is used to make honey that is the main source of carbohydrates, where as the pollen is the main source of protein. During cold winters the bees rely on swarming behavior inside the nest to regulate the temperature. The queen will mate with lots of drones that give rise to fertilized female worker bees, but when the egg is not fertilized it produces male drones. If the fertilized eggs are provided with sufficient nutrients (royal jelly) they will produce a queen. A queen can lay up to 1500 eggs a day.
Importance: Bees are very imported for the Bushmen, because they make honey. Honey is seen as a delicacy and is not always readily available. Honey was eaten on its own, or was fashioned into a “medicine tablet” along with other substances.
reptiles/amphibians
African rock python (Python natalensis)
Diagnostic characteristics: P. natalensis is the largest snake in southern Africa. They have light gray/brown body covered on dark brown blotches with some black patches with a arrowed shape marking on its large triangular shaped head ending in a pointed snout. They reach a average length of 4m but has been recorded of reaching 6m, and a average weight of 50kg but has been recorded as heavy as 90kg. The females are larger than the males. P. natalensis are not venomous but do have lots of sharp teeth that are backwardly curved. The whole body is covered in large smooth scales, with the scales under the lips having special pits that can detect heat radiation for animals. P. natalensis also possesses two functioning lung that differs from other snakes that only have one.
Biological information: The females are oviparous and can lay between 30-60 eggs in the breeding season in old termites mounds or other empty large burrows. Females will use their body to insulate and protect the eggs by coiling around them. P. natalensis is very dependent on water and will remain inactive in burrows during the driest parts of the year. They feed on a variety of mammals like rodents, hares, monkeys and even small antelope as well as small crocodiles. They are opportunistic predators as well as passive hunters and uses large water bodies to hunt. They will sit and wait for a suitable prey to come and drink water, when they strike from beneath the water like a crocodile.
Importance: The python is one of many snakes that the Bushmen caught for food. The African rock python is the largest snake in southern Africa and provides lots of meat for a local tribe. The python is not poisonous, but a bite can lead to a nasty infection that can lead to death if not treaded. The Bushmen used spears to hunt the large snake. The python is one of the snakes that are highly significant to the Bushmen.
Diagnostic characteristics: P. natalensis is the largest snake in southern Africa. They have light gray/brown body covered on dark brown blotches with some black patches with a arrowed shape marking on its large triangular shaped head ending in a pointed snout. They reach a average length of 4m but has been recorded of reaching 6m, and a average weight of 50kg but has been recorded as heavy as 90kg. The females are larger than the males. P. natalensis are not venomous but do have lots of sharp teeth that are backwardly curved. The whole body is covered in large smooth scales, with the scales under the lips having special pits that can detect heat radiation for animals. P. natalensis also possesses two functioning lung that differs from other snakes that only have one.
Biological information: The females are oviparous and can lay between 30-60 eggs in the breeding season in old termites mounds or other empty large burrows. Females will use their body to insulate and protect the eggs by coiling around them. P. natalensis is very dependent on water and will remain inactive in burrows during the driest parts of the year. They feed on a variety of mammals like rodents, hares, monkeys and even small antelope as well as small crocodiles. They are opportunistic predators as well as passive hunters and uses large water bodies to hunt. They will sit and wait for a suitable prey to come and drink water, when they strike from beneath the water like a crocodile.
Importance: The python is one of many snakes that the Bushmen caught for food. The African rock python is the largest snake in southern Africa and provides lots of meat for a local tribe. The python is not poisonous, but a bite can lead to a nasty infection that can lead to death if not treaded. The Bushmen used spears to hunt the large snake. The python is one of the snakes that are highly significant to the Bushmen.
Leopard tortoise (Geochelone pardalis)
Diagnostic characteristics: G. pardalis is a medium sized tortoise reaching an average height of half a meter with a average weight of 18kg. The unique feature of all tortoises is their large carapaces, and G. pardalis carapace can reach 610mm in diameter. The carapace of G. pardalis quite attractive, having black striped blotches covering a yellowish brown carapace, almost resembling the leopard’s skin pattern. The carapace is domed and has large bulge and each G. pardalis. Carapace pattern is unique. They have s strong beak and 4 legs (with sharp nails on the toes) that can be pulled back into the carapace.
Biological information: G. pardalis is a solitary grazing herbivore that feeds on a variety of plant parts including root, shoots and soft foliage. The female lays her eggs in abandoned underground burrows of anteaters or foxes, these burrows are also used to escape extreme variation in temperatures. G. pardalis sometimes digs their own burrow to lay their eggs. They are not know to be aggressive, but rather more defensive and will retract the feet and head into the carapace reasalting in a hissing sound. These animals can live up to 100 year. The leopard tortoises only reach sexual maturity between the ages of 12-15. The female lays between 5 -18 eggs. They don’t have any predators because their carapace helps to protects them.
Importance: The leopard tortoise was cough by the Bushmen for meat and to get their shell. They would cook the tortoise in its shell over the fire. The shell was used as a bowl to mix food or to carry water or food. They also made medicines from cow fat which they stored in the shell.
Diagnostic characteristics: G. pardalis is a medium sized tortoise reaching an average height of half a meter with a average weight of 18kg. The unique feature of all tortoises is their large carapaces, and G. pardalis carapace can reach 610mm in diameter. The carapace of G. pardalis quite attractive, having black striped blotches covering a yellowish brown carapace, almost resembling the leopard’s skin pattern. The carapace is domed and has large bulge and each G. pardalis. Carapace pattern is unique. They have s strong beak and 4 legs (with sharp nails on the toes) that can be pulled back into the carapace.
Biological information: G. pardalis is a solitary grazing herbivore that feeds on a variety of plant parts including root, shoots and soft foliage. The female lays her eggs in abandoned underground burrows of anteaters or foxes, these burrows are also used to escape extreme variation in temperatures. G. pardalis sometimes digs their own burrow to lay their eggs. They are not know to be aggressive, but rather more defensive and will retract the feet and head into the carapace reasalting in a hissing sound. These animals can live up to 100 year. The leopard tortoises only reach sexual maturity between the ages of 12-15. The female lays between 5 -18 eggs. They don’t have any predators because their carapace helps to protects them.
Importance: The leopard tortoise was cough by the Bushmen for meat and to get their shell. They would cook the tortoise in its shell over the fire. The shell was used as a bowl to mix food or to carry water or food. They also made medicines from cow fat which they stored in the shell.
Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis)
Diagnostic characteristics: D.polylepis is one of the largest venoumes snakes in Africa, and has the most poisonous venom. D.polylepis is not black like the name implies, but they are mostly dark gray and sometimes olive/ brown. The mouth of D.polylepis is black. The underbody are ligeter in color are resemble a creamy white color. They have 2 dark brown/ black eyes that have a white to yellow edge on the pupils. They can reach a average length of 2.5m and are capable of high speeds, 20km/h, making them the fastest snake in southern Africa.
Biological information: D.polylepis females are oviparous and lay between 6-17 eggs in a abandoned borrow that incubate for up to 3 months before hatching. The young use a special structure called a egg tooth to break the egg shell, the egg tooth vanish as the snakes matures. There is no parental care and the newly hatched young are fully functional and can defend themselves (young snakes are normaly more dangerous because they still need to learn the right amount of venom to inject into their prey). Males will find females that are ready to mate by following special scent trail that the female makes. During these times males will frequently fight among themselves for the female. D.polylepis is a diurnal snake and can easily move through the trees as well as in water. They keep a home range and are territorial. D.polylepis prey on small mammals including birds as well as some reptiles.
Importance: The Bushmen had great respect for the black mamba and they used various parts of the snake. They would make a mixture of black mamba lungs, bile, the fangs and venom along with some fat that they used to increase immunity and to treat other snake bites
Diagnostic characteristics: D.polylepis is one of the largest venoumes snakes in Africa, and has the most poisonous venom. D.polylepis is not black like the name implies, but they are mostly dark gray and sometimes olive/ brown. The mouth of D.polylepis is black. The underbody are ligeter in color are resemble a creamy white color. They have 2 dark brown/ black eyes that have a white to yellow edge on the pupils. They can reach a average length of 2.5m and are capable of high speeds, 20km/h, making them the fastest snake in southern Africa.
Biological information: D.polylepis females are oviparous and lay between 6-17 eggs in a abandoned borrow that incubate for up to 3 months before hatching. The young use a special structure called a egg tooth to break the egg shell, the egg tooth vanish as the snakes matures. There is no parental care and the newly hatched young are fully functional and can defend themselves (young snakes are normaly more dangerous because they still need to learn the right amount of venom to inject into their prey). Males will find females that are ready to mate by following special scent trail that the female makes. During these times males will frequently fight among themselves for the female. D.polylepis is a diurnal snake and can easily move through the trees as well as in water. They keep a home range and are territorial. D.polylepis prey on small mammals including birds as well as some reptiles.
Importance: The Bushmen had great respect for the black mamba and they used various parts of the snake. They would make a mixture of black mamba lungs, bile, the fangs and venom along with some fat that they used to increase immunity and to treat other snake bites